Health through Science

Oxymetazoline Hydrochloride is a topical nasal decongestant that is often found in most OTC nasal sprays like Otrivin in India. It works quite effectively with regards to relieving people from nasal congestion caused by things like colds, allergies, or sinusitis by constricting blood vessels in the nasal passages. The medication is an alpha-adrenergic receptor binder, meaning that it binds to the alpha-adrenergic receptors. These receptors are found on the smooth muscle cells which line blood vessels in the nasal mucosa. When oxymetazoline is applied to the nasal mucosa through droplets, it stimulates the receptors and triggers them to cause constriction of nasal blood vessels. Through vasoconstriction, there is a reduce in blood flow to the region, causing decreased swelling and inflammation. It also reduces how much mucus is produced, since it reduces the quantity of fluid that leaks into the passages. Thus, air can flow more freely in the passage, providing relief from the blocked n...

Beta-blockers are commonly prescribed medications for people with cardiovascular problems like coronary artery disease. A lot of people take them, and a lot of them get great results with it. But there's something that most people don't know about them, beta-blockers interact with diabetic peoples' bodies in a way that can REALLY complicate treatment plans.  For example, beta-blockers can mask the symptoms of hypoglycemia by reducing rapid heartbeats, tremors and anxiety. Although this seems good to someone with diabetes, it's actually worse. Without the typical warning signs of low blood sugar, patients may not be able to find a sugar source in time before they faint or get injured.  Some non-selective beta-blockers also worsen diabetes, since they reduce insulin sensitivity, which obviously makes it way harder to manage blood glucose levels. Non-selective beta blockers also interfere with the metabolism of glucose, and worsen control over blood sugar. That's why s...

Vitamin B12, known as cobalamin in the science world, is one of the most important nutrients for the human neurological system, DNA synthesis, and red blood cell formation. B12 is quite abundant in meat products like chicken and beef, but since vegan people don't eat any meat-containing or even dairy-containing products, they are much more prone to a deficiency in cobalamin. This leads to issues like neurological problems, anemia, overall tiredness, and even cognitive impairment.  The biggest problem of being a vegan, is that B12 isn't naturally present in plant-based foods; so it's really likely for them to be deficient of it, since they consume no source thereof. This is why most vegans employ two methods to meet their daily vitamin B12 requirements.  Method 1: Supplementation. The straightforward, and honestly simper way for people to address their B12 needs, is to just take supplements for it. There are tablets, sublingual drops, and sprays which all contain between 250...

Anemia is a condition wherein people have slightly lower/much lower levels of hemoglobin or red blood cells in their blood. When someone has anemia, they'll have an array of symptoms like fatigue, weakness, and pale skin. Anemia is caused by a deficiency in Iron in the blood: which results in hampered production of the adequate amount of hemoglobin (the protein which transports oxygen around the body.) Thus, to treat anemia, the root cause of an Iron deficiency has to be treated. To do this, doctors recommend people to take Ferrous Sulphate. Ferrous sulphate is a form of an iron supplement which contains ferrous ions (Fe2+), and is the easiest type of iron ion for the human body to absorb (as compared to ferric ions Fe3+.) Through its increased bioavailability, ferrous sulphate is one of the most effective treatments for replenishing iron levels and for treating anemia.  How does ferrous sulphate work: Once its ingested, the medication is absorbed all the way in upper intestine thr...

Ozempic, a medication known as seraglutamide, was developed to treat and manage type 2 diabetes. In scientific terms, Ozempic is an injective glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonist. The medicine helps control blood sugar levels by enhancing the secretion of insulin, reducing the release of glucagon (the hormone which releases sugar in the blood), and slowing the emptying of the gastric organs. However, recently, it has gained popularity for its significant effect on weight loss, leading to people using it without a prescription at their own risk (which I severely criticize, because they've caused a shortage for the actual diabetics who need it to live.) However, when it comes to diabetes, Ozempic works to reduce weight as well, which leads to many positive effects for patients. For example, since it results in stabler blood sugar levels, people feel more satiated and eat less food. This results in significant glycemic control in diabetic patients, and by reducing weight, ...

 PCOS is a  condition wherein people have imbalanced hormone levels. These imbalances present themselves in the form of polycystic ovaries, chronic irregular periods, and higher levels of testosterone in the form of increased body/facial hair. Among people who have PCOS, 80% of patients will hold fat around their belly and gain weight because of the effects of hormonal imbalances on their bodies. These effects include insulin resistance, gut dysbiosis, low-grade inflammation and more.  To treat this weight gain, doctors tend to recommend different diets to PCOS patients. But, the efficacy of these diets are heavily dependent on the person's individual situation. There are four major dietary approaches used to lose weight for people with PCOS: Reduced calorie diets, DASH diets, high protein diets, and keto diets. For most people, a combination of all of these diets will work best.  Here's a short explanation of each of these diets:  1) Reduced calorie diet: You e...

Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis (IPF) is a chronic lung disease which progresses over time. It is characterized by thickening of the lung tissue without a known cause, and eventually leads to scarring (fibrosis) of the tissue. Scarring of the lung results in stiffness of the organ, which reduces the ability of the lung to expand and contract, causing impaired oxygen transfer from the lungs to the bloodstream. IPF presents in various ways in patients, for example, it can be seen through breath shortness, clubbing of the fingers, dry cough which never gets resolved, fatigue, and sometimes even unexplained weight loss. The disease tends to affect older individuals and has a vast impact on the quality of life for its patients.  Ofev, is one of the most common medications administered when someone suffers from idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. It is a tyrosine kinase inhibitor (TKI) which targets multiple pathways involved in the process of scarring. In fact, it works specifically by inhibit...

Gaucher disease is a rare genetic disorder wherein the body lacks the ability to break down a specific kind of fat, which leads to accumulation thereof around various parts of the body, such as organs and bones. Eliglustat is one of the most common medications prescribed to help treat the disease by reducing production of the fat itself.  The disease is an inherited lysosomal storage disorder which is caused by an enzyme deficiency, specifically a low level of glucocerebrosidase. This enzyme breaks down a fat with a similar name, glucocerebroside. When the body lacks production of the enzyme, the fat accumulates around and in cells of the spleen, liver, and bone marrow. This causes a variety of symptoms in patients, and can present itself in bizarre ways like: enlarged spleens and livers, increased bone pain and occurrence of fractures, fatigue, anemia and even increased bruising.  Eliglustat, the medicine provided to patients, works in one way: substrate reduction. Basically,...

Myasthenia Gravis (referred to as MG in the article) is an autoimmune disorder in the nerves and muscles, which is known for its symptoms of weakness and very rapid fatigue of voluntary muscles. It is often managed by a corticosteroid called prednisone, due its potent immunosuppressive and anti-inflammation properties.  Prednisone is a synthetic corticosteroid which acts a lot like cortisol, the human stress hormone produced by the adrenal caps. Basically, it reduces inflammation and suppresses the immune system in different ways. It suppresses the immune system by decreasing the activity and volume of lymphocytes (aka the immune cells), thus reducing production of antibodies. This is related to MG, since patients of MG have acetylcholine receptors on cells which keep getting attacked by antibodies. By reducing antibody production, pain is reduced in patients. It also works by inhibiting the release of inflammatory cytokines (a cell signaling molecule) and mediators, this reduces t...

Pompe disease, also known as glycogen storage disease type II, is a rare genetic disorder characterized by its name. People with Pompe disease have cells with excess accumulation of glycogen, which leads to progressive muscle weakness and problems with breathing (respiratory issues.) Alglucosidase alfa therapy is a recombinant enzyme replacement therapy, which basically means that it replaces the enzyme that patients are deficient in. This therapy works to replace alpha-glucosidase, the enzyme acid which breaks down excess glycogen.  In people with Pompe disease, symptoms manifest in two ways: loss of muscular strength and inability to breath efficiently. This is because, the deficiency of alpha-glucosidase leads to buildup of the glycogen in lysosomes, which are crucial organelles for muscle cells. However, when alglucosidase alfa therapy is administered and the enzyme is taken up by the patient's body, they receive enough of the enzyme for the cells to take it in using recep...

Primary Biliary Cholangitis (commonly referred to as PBC) is an autoimmune disorder where your body gradually destroys the bile ducts within your liver. It is a chronic liver disease. The disease primarily affects middle aged women. In PBC, your immune system mistakenly attacks those liver bile ducts, causing inflammation, fibrosis, and eventual cirrhosis and death of the cells involved. This leads to impaired flow of bile, a liquid crucial for digestion. When the bile flow is obstructed, it builds up in the liver, and causes liver failure over time. Symptoms of PBC include: fatigue, itching (called pruritus in medical terms), jaundice (yellow eyes and skin) and hepatomegaly (an abnormally large liver caused from the buildup of bile.)  To treat PBC, a medication called obeticholic acid (OCA) is used. Obeticholic acid is an agonist (i.e. stimulator) of a certain receptor called FXR, which is involved in regulation of the synthesis of bile, transport of bile and metabolism. OCA activ...

Paroxysmal Nocturnal Hemoglobinuria is a very rare, and life-threatening condition of the blood wherein your body destroys red blood cells (the cells which give you oxygen.) It is characterized by the hemolysis (aka the breakdown of those cells), thrombosis (clots of blood in your veins or arteries), and even impaired bone marrow function. Eculizumab is one of the most useful medicines for PNH, because of the significant improvements it yields in patients with the condition.  PNH is an acquired disorder, which results from a mutation in a specific gene called the PIGA gene. This gene is responsible for the synthesis of proteins which protect your red blood cells from getting destroyed by your immune system. When these proteins are not produced because of the PIGA gene mutation, you acquire the symptoms of PNH.  Symptoms of PNH include but are not limited to: dark urine, especially at night or in the morning, since hemoglobin is being released into it; blood clots causing throm...

Fabry disease is a rare genetic disease which is caused by a deficiency of a certain enzyme called alpha-galactosidase A (AGA). An AGA deficiency leads to the buildup of a certain type of fat called GL-3 in tissues, which causes a variety of symptoms and can present itself in different ways. Agalsidase beta is an enzyme replacement therapy that is used to treat the disease.  Fabry disease is a X-linked lysosomal storage disorder which is caused by mutations in the GLA gene. The GLA gene is the one that codes for AGA. The enzyme is crucial for breakdown of GL-3. When GL-3 builds up in cells due to the deficiency caused by Fabry disease, the patients experience symptoms like pain in hands and feet, rashes, very low amounts of sweat, opacity in the cornea (vision problems), GI issues, and kidney damage.  Agalsidase beta replacement therapy works by replacing the deficiency enzyme and therefore causing a reduction in GL-3 accumulation. It provides the functional enzyme to the body...

Wilson's disease is an autosomal recessive genetic disorder, which is caused by mutations in a gene called ATP7B. This gene is the gene responsible for regulating the transport of copper and excretion of it outside the body. When this gene has mutations, it leads to copper accumulation inside the body, beginning in places like the liver, and eventually spreading to the brain and kidneys, causing symptoms such as: Hepatitis, cirrhosis, liver failure, tremors, difficulties in speaking, depression, psychosis, personality changes and even copper deposits in the cornea in the shape of rings, and some renal problems.  To treat Wilson's disease, cuprimine is administered in patients. It is a chelating agent, meaning that it is a substance which easily bonds with metal ions to form complexes. It bonds to copper ions, turning into a stable complex; this lets it be excreted through urine much more easily. By binding to the ions, cuprimine consumption results in a lower copper concentrati...

Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia Syndrome, more commonly known as POTS, is a heart condition wherein people have an abnormal heart rate when they stand up, which can cause a lot of unpleasant symptoms like lightheadedness, dizziness, and even fainting. Bisoprolol, part of the beta-blockers family of medicine, is a treatment used to address the symptoms of POTS.  POTS is a type of dysautonomia, a nervous system disorder. As per most medical guidelines, it is characterized by an excessive heart rate increase (by more than 30BPM) within a 10 minute timeframe of standing. It can also be observed by a heart rate higher than 120 BPM where blood pressure does not change significantly.  Bisoprolol is a selective beta-1-adrenergic receptor blocker. This means that it blocks the receptors responsible for an increase in heart rate by upping heart contractions. Thus, by its blocking action, heart rate stability and consistency increases, and POTS symptoms are relieved. In essence, it work...

    Tamoxifen is an SERM, also known as a selective estrogen receptor modulator which affects estrogen levels in gynecomastia with the antagonistic actions on estrogen receptors. Gynecomastia is a benign enlargement of breast tissue; it mostly occurs due to an imbalance between estrogen and testosterone levels, which leads to increased estrogen activity relative to androgens, the male puberty hormone. Tamoxifen, similar to enzyme inhibitors, binds to estrogen receptors, specifically alpha and beta estrogen receptors in breast tissue. By occupying the receptors, tamoxifen blocks estrogen from binding to the receptors, thus inhibiting ESPs (estrogen signaling pathways). By doing this, the antagonistic action, it reduces the effect of estrogen on breast tissue growth or size. The medicine also may induce cell apoptosis in breast tissue, killing off the cells that lead to the swollen look of the chest that most people with gynecomastia have. Through this, it causes a regress...

Diabetes is a typically chronic medical condition involving a lack of either insulin sensitivity or insulin as a whole. Type 2 diabetes, the most common type, involves your cells becoming resistant to insulin over time due to excess exposure to high blood glucose levels. Oftentimes, people suffering from type 2 diabetes are affected by their lifestyle factors like low levels of physical exercise and a high-glycemic load diet. In terms of managing diabetes, metformin has proved itself as one of the most commonly prescribed medications. Metformin is a biguanide medication (a type of orally consumed diabetes medicine), which offers significant benefits to patients who have type 2 diabetes by improving sensitivity to insulin and decreasing glucose production in the liver. Instead of increasing levels of insulin in the body, metformin works by making your body more sensitive to the already present insulin in the bloodstream. Metformin is always administered orally, with varying dosages ...

Sinusitis is a disease characterized by the inflammation of the sinus cavities, which leads to discomfort and disrupts day to day living. Montelukast, which is most often sold under the brand name singulair, shows great potential in treating sinus-related symptoms. Montelukast is a leukotriene receptor antagonist, which means that it targets leukotrienes (inflammatory mediator agents which play important roles in mucus production, sinus inflammation, and nasal congestion.) It works by blocking the action of these leukotrienes, which reduces inflammation and associated symptoms of sinusitis. Montelukast is often consumed daily in the evening, with or without food, depending on what the patient’s healthcare provider says. ‘Montelukast for chronic sinusitis with polyps’ is a systematic review and meta-analysis investigating the efficacy of montelukast in patients who have chronic sinusitis based on polyp formation in the nasal cavity. The research obtained showed that montelukast has a ...

Delayed onset muscle soreness, also known as DOMS, is usually followed by after intense physical activity like dancing, running, going to the gym, high-energy sports, or even walking in the mall for too long. People who experience DOMS are often both uncomfortable with the pain and strong-willed to get rid of it, and that is where pomegranate juice comes to hand. Pomegranate juice has quite recently emerged as a great solution to alleviate soreness in the muscles. Pomegranate juice, obviously derived from the pomegranate, contains a lot of antioxidants, specifically things like polyphenols and anthocyanins. These antioxidants are highly anti-inflammatory and their properties may also include reducing oxidative stress (something which contributes to muscle soreness), Along with that, the juice also enhances blood flow, helping exhausted muscles to get the necessary nutrients at a faster rate. Consuming pomegranate juice after a workout is most efficient, as juices can be rapidly abs...

Acne is a common skincare concern in a lot of adolescents and adults, and it’s the type of concern which can prompt its sufferers to search the world for solutions and end up with barely one. Salicylic acid, however, seems to be the one true ambrosia for a lot of people going through acne bouts. It’s a beta-hydroxy acid, which has gained immense popularity due to its efficacy in the realm of skincare. Salicylic acid is known for its properties as an exfoliant and its ability to penetrate pores filled with oil and sebum. It works by dissolving the top layer of skin, the epithelial cells: leading to unclogged pores and preventing the formation of new acne lesions. Along with that, salicylic acid shows anti-inflammatory effects, which means that it could be effective in reducing redness and swelling in pimples on your skin. Salicylic acid is available in a multitude of different forms; however, people barely tend to apply it as a sole treatment. It is often mixed into cleansers, toner...